Virginia deep sea fishing boats begin catching wahoo in mid-summer along the 20 fathom line. Other good areas to target are many of the lumps and ridges in 30-50 fathoms.

Wahoo are also caught in deepwater areas such as the Washington and Norfolk Canyons. These structures have amazing features which produce conditions that attract several types of fish and other ocean life. West of the canyon walls are shallower but still productive areas. Near the canyon walls, the bottom becomes steeper and rockier. Wahoo and other fish congregate along the dropoffs, waiting to ambush baitfish.

Wahoo use their combination of speed and sharp teeth when hunting. They have been known to charge thru a school of fish, with their mouth wide open. Their teeth need only to touch baitfish to slice them cleanly in half. After the initial charge, wahoo may turn and cruise back in lower in the water column, catching any injured or dead fish that sink.

Wahoo are very difficult to catch. Their teeth cut monofilament line effortlessly. When targeting wahoo specifically, many anglers switch to wire in order to avoid being cut off by the fish. Sometimes wire leaders work, but since wahoo have keen eyesight, they sometimes detect the wire leader material and refuse to bite. A switch back to mono might get bites, but then the angler is back to loosing rigs and missing fish again!

While wahoo are known for their speed, beauty and difficulty to catch, perhaps their most famous attribute is their table quality. Wahoo are among the most delicious of fish. Their meat is mild and white with a distinctive texture and flavor. Wahoo are delicious grilled, blackened, smoked or broiled.

Wahoo are favorites not only among deep sea fishing enthusiasts and seafood lovers but also nautical art lovers. Their unique name and striking appearance makes them popular for apparel. Wahoo t-shirts are loved by anglers, boaters and mariners.

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The different types of sediment which cover the sea floor

There are two main types of sediment, terragenous and bioclastic and less widespread types of sediment from volcanic and hydrothermal vent activity. Sediments can also be classified as pelagic or deep sea sediments. If we look at terragenous sediments first, these are the result of erosion from continental rocks. The material eroded is deposited on the continental shelves by run off or other physical actions and advances the continental shelf seawards by deposition of sediments. Submarine fans may form e.g. the giant Ganges Fan and currents eventually move sediments off the continental shelf and into the abyssal plain. The ocean shifts the coarser material in turbidity currents and there are occasional sudden movements e.g. 1929 Grand Banks in North America turbidity event. Bioclastic sediments are the result of biological activity and include the dead remains of pelagic plants and animals that have sunk. Pelagic bioclastic sediments are also called oozes and may be composed of calcareous or silaceous materials.

Calcareous ooze is composed of chalky remains of foraminifera and pteropods, and forms the deep ocean red clays. The silaceous material is derived from shells of radiolarians and diatoms and found mainly in tropical and polar seas. The distribution of ooze reflects primary production taking place near the surface. The thickness of the sediments also reflects the age of the ocean crust with thickness increasing as we move away from mid ocean ridges for example. Volcanic ash from eruptions can also travel large distances and end by being deposited on the ocean floor, thus contributing to sediments. Finally around hydrothermal events we have unique sediments with metalliferous muds. It should also be noted that sediments on the abyssal plains are not completely static as currents, earthquakes and tectonic activity can move them.

Food availability in the deep sea and how animals cope with limited food supplies.

Basically food availability decreases with depth as does species diversity. The supply of food to the deep sea depends on primary production in the photic zone (except for hydrothermal vent areas). However, it has been estimated that just 2% of phytoplankton sink to the bottom as they are mainly consumed above or on the way down.

Since food is relatively scarce the marine organisms have a number of ways of coping. We can loosely categorize these as

1) Energy conservation adaptations e.g. slow movements, slow metabolisms, and some fish with relatively low muscle mass compared to fish in shallower seas.

2) Related to energy conservation some fish are ambush predators e.g. deep sea Angler fish.

3) Dwarfism and gigantism are methods of coping with food availability e.g. tiny nematode worms.

4) Physiological adaptations also include distended stomachs in some species to cope with the rare chances of feeding e,g, angler fish but even bivalves in the deep ocean have been found to have longer guts to take full advantage of food availability.

5) Related to this opportunistic feeding but perhaps in a class of its own we have the animals adapted to feed on dead whales. These are very important and provide many year’s food supply to an area of the ocean floor in one moment. 43 species have been found on one whale carcass e.g. sharks, hagfish, bone eating zombie worms, snails, limpets, clams and anaerobic bacteria. Since there are many similarities with organisms found round hydrothermal vents these carcasses may have acted as stepping stones from vent to vent.

6) Deposit feeders. Since the deep sea floor is dominated by loosely compacted biogenic ooze it is dominated by deposit feeders like the deep sea cucumber (Scotoplanes).

7) Vertical migration. Some fish move upwards to feed and have replaced swim bladders with fatty deposits in order to cope with the vast differences in pressure. This is just a brief cross section of the ways in which animals cope with limited food supplies.

Some of the adaptations to the deep sea.

We only have space to discuss some of the adaptations to the deep sea. Lets us select five main categories to discuss as follows: adaptations to pressure, temperature, food availability, lack of light, and reproduction. Animals adapt to pressure in a variety of ways e.g. sperm whales have lungs that can compress to 1% of their normal volume, angler fish have reduced skeletons and other fish have reduced muscle mass. Sea cucumbers have bodies largely composed of water and others have proteins and enzymes adapted to work at pressure. Other species have dispensed with shell formation below the carbonate compensation depth. In these ways we see that there are physiological and chemical adaptations to cope with increased pressure. Secondly we have a brief discussion of temperature. The deep sea is largely isothermal with very stable temperatures prevailing that need few adaptations.

Hydrothermal vents are an exception to this rule. As far as food availability is concerned we have discussed in section three above the adaptations animals use to cope ranging from predatory and scavenging behavior, opportunistic feeding on whale carcasses to vertical migration strategies. Lack of light perhaps creates some of the most interesting adaptations. Eyes of fish in the deep sea tend to be generally larger than their counterparts above, although below 2000 meters eyes again grow smaller or are absent. Eyes contain a higher density of rods in the retina or tubular eyes are common e.g. hatchet fish. Where eyes are useless in the total darkness other methods have developed to sense the environment. Lateral lines are well developed to sense vibrations and antennae may also be used e.g. in hairy angler fish.

Bioluminescence is another adaption with 60 to 70% of deep water animals possessing this ability. Organs called photophores, sometimes using bacteria as a light source are found in many fish e.g. lantern fish. Bioluminescence can be used as a lure for food or for defence. Finally we have adaptations in reproduction in the deep sea with eggs with large yolks to combat lack of food, long lived species with slow sexual maturity may also help in this area. The relative difficulty of finding isolated mates may also have led to high degrees of hermaphroditic behavior and the famous adaptation of the tiny parasitic male in angler fish. These are just some of the adaptations to the deep sea.

Kelp forests.

Kelps are large brown algae that form giant kelp forests where there is a floating surface canopy. Kelps beds are lower lying kelps and vertical zonation of kelps helps them to receive as much sunlight for photosynthesis as possible. There are for example understory species (e.g. Nereocystis) and canopy species. Different species of kelp also predominate in different parts of the world with Laminaria sp. dominating in the North Atlantic for example and  Macrocystis kelp forests in the Southern Atlantic. Kelp forests are found throughout the world in the sublittoral zone up to 50 meters deep throughout the cold temperate regions of the Earth. Kelp forests are vital for biodiversity and possess a very high primary production with some species growing several centimeters per day. They support a very diverse ecosystem. The kelps are attached by holdfasts to the rock and even this provides a habitat for young mussels (Mytilus edulus) and starfish. Kelp supports a range of associated species ranging from polychaete worms, isopods, sea urchins and brittle stars to crabs and fish. Detritus from kelp helps support deposit feeders. Finally there are a range of other animals associated with kelp ranging from seabirds to otters. The well documented example from Nova Scotia of Sea otters keeping sea urchins in check on the kelp provides us with a good example of the complex interactions of life in the kelp forests.

Dr Simon Harding

www.chronosconsulting.com

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We will examine the sources of evidence for a discussion of this deep sea environment by looking at some of the techniques man uses to gather information there. This will be followed by a description of some of the determining conditions in these regions with a note on geology, sediments , a brief discussion of the deep water masses, a description of marine life to be found in the deep sea environment, its adaptations and challenges with a special note on hydrothermal vents (although at an average depth of 2100 meters they are just within our discussion zone), hydrocarbon seeps and a final conclusion about the overall importance of the deep sea environment for mankind.

Firstly, why study the deep sea environment at all ? The abyssal plains are dark and seem devoid of life or interest but nothing could be further from the truth. Abyssal areas represent over 90% of the benthos and over 80% of ocean lies below 3000 meters. New discoveries are being made and these could greatly influence our future.

The deep sea is a repository of scientific information and resources that can influence us in the fields of medicine, chemistry, physics, biology, feeding the world’s expanding population and conservation. The deep sea is in fact the largest ecosystem on Earth . Let us first examine the methods of evidence collection. The Collection of  Evidence There are many techniques and  devices that have been used to explore the depths and gather information ranging from the days of dropping lead weights (line sounding) over the side of ships, to echo sounding since World War I, to the invention of scuba gear (not useful at our depths under discussion), to the use of Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic (GLORIA). Sidescan sonar and continuos seismic surveying methods do give us a wealth of information.

In addition a range of simple devices give us information such as thermometers, water bottles and current meters for measuring the physical and chemical properties of the water, dredges, corers, heat probes and cameras for studying bottom sediments and bottom life. However, for centuries the only evidence we had of marine life in the deep sea was extremely scarce. The area we are discussing has rarely been visited. Diving using atmospheric suits (JIM) can only cope to around 450 meters currently. We need different equipment to explore the depths we are discussing. In 1964 Alvin made the first successful scientific deep sea manned submersible dive in behalf of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Later updated versions have been able to dive to 6,000 meters.

Alvin was the first to discover hydrothermal vents and explore a small section of the mid oceanic ridge. We will return to this environment later. For depths below this we rely on remote operated vehicles or ROVs. Cutting edge research is being conducted using ROVs by Woods Hole OI and also Monterey bay Aquarium Research Institute.. Man has even visited the lowest point. In January 1960 Piccard and Walsh descended in the Trieste II ( a bathyscaphe) to the deepest known point on Earth, the Mariana Trench at 10,915 meters. Despite the overall paucity of evidence and the fact that the vast majority of the seabed remains to be explored we can discuss the deep water environment in a dynamic way.

New discoveries are being made frequently in this field. Let us now look at the geological basis of the deep sea environment. Geology The Ocean lithosphere is approximately 100 km thick ( therefore significantly thinner than the continental lithosphere) and this refers to the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The lithosphere is composed mainly of peridotite. The upper part of the lithosphere is the crust which is made up mainly of lighter granitic rock. The oceanic crust is thinner and denser than the continental crust and made up mainly of basaltic rock. The entire lithosphere (oceanic and continental) sits on top of the viscous lower layer called the asthenosphere which forms part of the upper mantle.

The lithosphere is composed of 7 major plates and 6 minor ones. New oceanic lithosphere , or at least the oceanic crust,  is formed at constructive plate boundaries. At sea floor spreading ridges the asthenosphere wells up and cools and forms the oceanic floor on either side of the boundary. The Mid Atlantic Ridge is a classical example of this. Destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs in the subduction zones. The subducted plate descends into the hot mantle and is destroyed as it melts. The coast of Japan offers an example of this. It should be noted that the environment is dynamic over geological time as the process of subduction destroys the ocean floor. As new ocean floor is formed it pushes the floor on either side away and this may eventually enter a subduction zone and be destroyed. It is possible to date the ocean crust as the plates move apart and spread over the abyssal plain as  they take on the polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field. This work was described by Matthews and Vine.

Also generally speaking the older the ocean crust the further away from the spreading ridges it will be. The denser material also sinks further away from the surface of the sea . Given the age/depth relation the age of the ocean crust can also be estimated. The main “landform”  features of the ocean basins are perhaps a Mid Ocean Ridge with an abyssal plain on either side of this ridge,  constructive plate margins or destructive plate margins with a deep ocean trench at the edges of the deep sea environment with pelagic sediments covering the floor. Naturally there are many variations to this pattern but this brings us to a consideration of sedimentation.

Sediments in the Deep Sea Environment In the true deep sea environment we are really only concerned with deep sea sediments. However, there are two main types of sediment, terragenous and bioclastic and less widespread types of sediment from volcanic and hydrothermal vent activity. Sediments can also be classified as pelagic or deep sea sediments. If we look at terragenous sediments first, these are the result of erosion from continental rocks. The material eroded is deposited on the continental shelves by run off or other physical actions and advances the continental shelf seawards by deposition of sediments. Submarine fans may form e.g. the giant Ganges Fan and currents eventually move sediments off the continental shelf and into the abyssal plain. Therefore this brief discussion of terragenous sediments is useful as they do eventually enter our discussion remit. The ocean shifts the coarser material in turbidity currents and there are occasional sudden movements e.g. 1929 Grand Banks in North America turbidity event. Bioclastic sediments are the result of biological activity and include the dead remains of pelagic plants and animals that have sunk. Pelagic bioclastic sediments are also called oozes and may be composed of calcareous or silaceous materials.

Calcareous ooze is composed of chalky remains of foraminifera and pteropods, and forms the deep ocean red clays. The silaceous material is derived from shells of radiolarians and diatoms and found mainly in tropical and polar seas. The distribution of ooze reflects primary production taking place near the surface. The thickness of the sediments also reflects the age of the ocean crust with thickness increasing as we move away from mid ocean ridges for example. Volcanic ash from eruptions can also travel large distances and end by being deposited on the ocean floor, thus contributing to sediments. Finally around hydrothermal events we have unique sediments with metalliferous muds. It should also be noted that sediments on the abyssal plains are not completely static as currents, earthquakes and tectonic activity can move them. An understanding of sediments in the deep sea environment is vital when we discuss life in this region. Deep Water Conditions Deep water is isolated from the effects of wind below the Ekman spirals which only influence down to 100 meters.

However, changes at the surface can result in the movement of deep water with changes in temperature, density and salinity. Cold, dense water sinks and moves very slowly along the depths of the ocean, requiring many hundreds of years to move through an ocean basin. There is no daily or seasonal variations effectively and this creates a very stable environment.

Below 3,000 meters the area is isothermal effectively except for areas around hydrothermal vents. The regions under discussion in this essay are mainly the Bathypelagic and Abyssalpelagic Zones so here the waters are dark, limited in nutrition, cold and at great pressure. For every 10m increase in depth pressure increases by one atmosphere so we are discussing pressures of 200 to 600 atmospheres or more in our region since the average depth of the deep sea is 4,000 meters and in some cases goes to 11.000 meters in the trenches. A consideration of deep water conditions will be a vital underpinning to our section of life in the deep water environment Life in the Deep Sea Environment Despite the apparent difficulties and challenges of life in the deep sea environment organisms have managed to exploit these regions.

We shall take a look at some of the main groups of inhabitants, some of the difficulties they face and finally some of the adaptations they have evolved to cope with life in the deep sea. Firstly we should discuss briefly the presence of microorganisms in the deep sea. In fact most organisms in the deep sea are microorganisms. These microbes are able to tolerate high pressure (barotolerant) and others actually depend on high pressure (barophilic). In the Mariana Trench there are extreme barophiles.

Most of these microbes are also psychrophilic  i.e. they like cold conditions. Bacteria at these levels have specially adapted enzymes and membranes. However, much research remains to be done in this area and results can sometimes be inconclusive or at least very surprising. For example in 1996 the Japanese submersible Kaiko scooped mud from the bottom of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench and when the many thousands of organisms were examined none of them were barophilic, halophilic or acidophilic but surprisingly alkaliphiles and even thermophiles so we should be careful in making generalization in the hadal zone. However, other samples taken around the same time did result in the successful isolation some extreme barophiles related to the genera Shewanella, Moritella and Colwellia.

However, as we shall see not only microbes live in these zones. Animals of the deep sea environment The deep sea is home to most phyla of animals but changes in abundance of different animals with increasing depth. Research in the Kurile-Kamchatka shows that sponges are dominant down to 2000 meters but we are focussed on the deeper regions. Sea cucumbers are the commonest animals found below 4000 meters and polychete worms make up a large percentage of benthic or bottom dwelling animals. Sea cucumbers and seapigs (Holothuroidea) are often the most common animal in deep dredges. Seapigs have been caught at 10,000 meters deep in the Kermadec  Tench. These feed by ploughing the deep sea mud and digest bacteria and organics. Some can swim above the ooze though. Starfish have been found down to 7,000 meters . Brittle and basket stars (Ophiuroidea) are found. Small crustaceans such as amphipods and isopods, as well as molluscs (such as clams) and sea anemones have been found at great depths. There were relatively few crabs and fish found at these depths but this may have been more to do with the sampling methods used.

On the ocean bed deposit feeders predominate with sea cucumbers and worms at the deepest levels. There are in fact many species of smaller infaunal animal here. Some estimates reckon close to a million different species of benthic invertebrates in the deep sea sediments. This shows why our above consideration of sediments is so fundamental to a discussion of the deep ocean environment. However, the number of individuals animals decreases from the surface to the deep hadal trenches. We stated that there were relatively few crabs and fish found at great depth but they are represented.

Lets us take three species as examples. Firstly a fish that is often ignored because of its more spectacular rivals the –  Rattail Fish or Grenadier fish. This is termed benthopelagic or demersal because they swim just above the bottom. This relative of cod  is in fact the most common fish found in the abyssal depths. The deepest Rattail observed lives down to 6500 meters. These belong to the family Macrouidae and have large heads and tapering bodies and feed by both hunting and scavenging.  They are being fished commercially.

Secondly we have the Hatchet fish ( Argyropelecus olfersi ) They are camouflaged with silvery bodies, a flattened body for reduced silhouette and photophores that match the downwelling light so they are difficult to see. They search the waters above with their tubular eyes. We shall consider these adaptations in the next section. Thirdly we have the Lantern fish (Ceactoscopelus warmingii), which are about 5 to 15 centimeters long, have numerous photophores and migrate daily upwards to feed.  We have space here only to discuss a few of the many species in the deep sea environment.  Other species include sea urchins, crinoids, Tripod fish, gulper eels, sponges and seapens. Some are permanent dwellers in this environment such as deep sea cucumbers and others are visitors to our region such as the large Greenland shark ( Somniosus microcephalus) down to 2,200 meters and the six gilled Hexanchus down to 2,500 meters but all have some adaptations to cope with the deep sea environment.

These and other adaptations to life in the deep sea environment will now be discussed in more detail. Deep sea challenges to animals and their adaptations Lets us select five main categories to discuss as follows: adaptations to pressure, temperature, food availability, lack of light, and reproduction. Pressure and temperature Animals adapt to pressure in a variety of ways e.g. sperm whales have lungs that can compress to 1% of their normal volume, angler fish have reduced skeletons and other fish have reduced muscle mass. Sea cucumbers have bodies largely composed of water and others have proteins and enzymes adapted to work at pressure. Sharks have oily livers instead of swim bladders to cope with extremes of pressure. It is also difficult to produce calcium carbonate shells due to pressure and temperature issues. As pressure increases and temperature decreases calcium carbonate becomes soluble making it difficult for creatures to secrete shells. The depth when no calcium carbonate present is called the carbonate compensation depth of CCD.

Today the CCD in the Pacific ranges from 4,200 meters to 4,500 meters deep and in the Atlantic 5,000 meters deep. Many species have dispensed with shell formation below the carbonate compensation depth.  In these ways we see that there are physiological and chemical adaptations to cope with increased pressure. Secondly we have a brief discussion of temperature. The deep sea is largely isothermal with very stable temperatures prevailing that need few adaptations. Hydrothermal vents are an exception to this rule and we will discuss these in more detail later in the thesis.. Food availability As far as food availability is concerned there are many adaptations animals use to cope ranging from predatory and scavenging behavior, opportunistic feeding on whale carcasses to vertical migration strategies.

Let us look at these in more detail now: Basically food availability decreases with depth as does species diversity. The supply of food to the deep sea depends on primary production in the photic zone (except for hydrothermal vent areas). However, it has been estimated that just 2% of phytoplankton sink to the bottom as they are mainly consumed above or on the way down. Since food is relatively scarce the marine organisms have a number of ways of coping.

We can loosely categorize these as 1) Energy conservation adaptations e.g. slow movements, slow metabolisms, and some fish with relatively low muscle mass compared to fish in shallower seas. 2) Related to energy conservation some fish are ambush predators e.g. deep sea Angler fish, using bioluminescent lures. 3) Dwarfism and gigantism are methods of coping with food availability e.g. tiny nematode worms at one extreme and large amphipods (up to 28cm) at the other. 4) Physiological adaptations also include distended stomachs and hinged jaws in some species to cope with the rare chances of feeding e,g, angler fish and gulper eels but even bivalves in the deep ocean have been found to have longer guts to take full advantage of food availability. 5) Related to this opportunistic feeding but perhaps in a class of its own we have the animals adapted to feed on dead whales. These are very important and provide many year’s food supply to an area of the ocean floor in one moment. 43 species have been found on one whale carcass e.g. sharks, hagfish, bone eating zombie worms, snails, limpets, clams and anaerobic bacteria. Since there are many similarities with organisms found round hydrothermal vents these carcasses may have acted as stepping stones from vent to vent. 6) Deposit feeders. Since the deep sea floor is dominated by loosely compacted biogenic ooze it is dominated by deposit feeders like the deep sea cucumber (Scotoplanes).  Deposit feeders may make up to 80% of the species on the sea floor.  Most of the sea bed is covered in soft clays or mud like oozes made of skeletons on tiny sea animals and fecal material. The ooze in the abyss can reach several hundred meters thick. Some animals walking along the bottom have very long legs to avoid stirring the mud up e.g. deep sea spider. These are not true spiders but belong to the pycnogonids. Other species grow anchored to the sea bed and have long stems to keep feeding structures clear of the ooze. 7) Vertical migration. Some fish move upwards to feed and have replaced swim bladders with fatty deposits in order to cope with the vast differences in pressure.

The Rattail fish mentioned above is a good example of this travelling up to 1,700 meters upwards in a night to feed. This is just a brief cross section of the ways in which animals cope with limited food supplies. Lack of light Lack of light perhaps creates some of the most interesting adaptations. Eyes of fish in the deep sea tend to be generally larger than their counterparts above, although below 2000 meters eyes again grow smaller or are absent. Eyes contain a higher density of rods in the retina or tubular eyes are common e.g. hatchet fish. Where eyes are useless in the total darkness other methods have developed to sense the environment. Lateral lines are well developed to sense vibrations and antennae may also be used e.g. in hairy angler fish.

Bioluminescence is another adaption with 60 to 70% of deep water animals possessing this ability. Organs called photophores, sometimes using bacteria as a light source are found in many fish e.g. lantern fish. Simple photophores either produce light or retain light producing bacteria such as Vibrio or Photobacterium in a symbiotic relationship. Since bacteria produce light continuously the host animals develop ways to control emissions e.g. reflective layers, flaps and lenses. Squid have the most spectacular abilities in this area. Bioluminescence can be used as a lure for food or for defence. Areas of photophores in the angler fish are for lures. The hatchet fish uses light for camouflage and the squids for defense as a burst of unexpected light can distract an attacker.

Since the dominant sense in the deep sea is hearing  we should discuss this in a little more detail. Many invertebrates detect sound by cilia. Fish detect by sensory hairs in the otolith organ in the inner ear. Lateral line systems also enable fish to detect sound vibrations, movements of prey and fish in schools and changes in ocean currents. Animals around the hydrothermal vent systems may rely on this to avoid the vents themselves but we will return to a discussion of vents later. When we consider vision there are also a variety of systems in use. There are relatively simple systems such as eyespots e.g. polychete worms to the spherical lens systems of fish which allow them to have light perception beyond the capabilities of man as we have mentioned above.

Next we should consider the sense of orientation in marine animals. Several species can detect the pull of gravity with organs known as statocysts. In vertebrates the semicircular canal in the ear performs this function. Next we come to chemoreception covering the senses of taste and smell. The sense of smell (olfaction) is extremely well developed in sharks. and these do venture down into the regions we are discussing. Electroreception is another sense used by sharks and some other predatory fish who posses electrosensory organs. In sharks these are known as ampulla of Lorenzini.

Finally there is the sense of magnetoreception and magnetite crystals have been found in fish that may enable them to navigate over long distances. Much research remains to be done in this area it seems, particularly in relation to deep sea species. Reproduction Finally we have adaptations in reproduction in the deep sea with eggs with large yolks to combat lack of food, long lived species with slow sexual maturity may also help in this area. The relative difficulty of finding isolated mates may also have led to high degrees of hermaphroditic behavior. For example tripod fish have both male and female sex organs. The tripod is unusual in that male and female organs may reach maturity at the same time thus allowing the fish to fertilize its own eggs. Perhaps it is so sparsely distributed that one fish may not find a mate at the right time. The famous adaptation of the tiny parasitic male in angler fish is another adaptation to this isolation. The tiny male clamps onto the female and is even partially absorbed by her thus ensuring a source of fertilization at the right time.  Deep sea species tend to be slow growing, late maturing and low in reproductive capacity. Many deep water fish species live 30 years or more and the orange roughy can live up to 150 years. These are just some of the adaptations to the deep sea. If we look in more details at certain unique communities in the deep sea environment we can observe other adaptations A Note on Hydrothermal Vents and Hydrocarbon Seeps Hydrothermal vents systems are one such unique community. These have been of interest really since the Alvin discoveries in 1977 in the Galapagos Rift Zone.

Hydrothermal vent systems develop at depths of several kilometers in the oceans in mid ocean spreading centers where there is hot upwelling lava. Sea water percolates and is vented back at hot temperatures, full of minerals, as either warm seeps, black or white “smokers”. White smokers are only slightly cooler than black smokers and because they are rich in zinc have a white tinge. Animals here must have a unique set of adaptations. Since they are far from the photic zone the inhabitants rely on bacteria such as Beggiatoa  to produce food from chemosynthesis of caustic compounds such as hydrogen sulphide. These bacteria sometimes form mats near the vents and are in turn grazed upon by limpets and gastropod molluscs. Other communities of bacteria live in symbiosis with the giant tube worms ( Riftia pachyptila) for example. Riftia can grow up to 1.5. meters long and have unique adaptations to the deep sea environment in that they can carry both oxygen and hydrogen sulphide in their blood to supply the bacteria. The clams (Calyptogena magnifica ) near the vent systems have similar techniques.

So far scientists have discovered over 236 species around the vent systems. 223 of these were new to science and many of them endemic to vent systems. More vent systems have now been explored e.g. Hole to Hell and Hanging Gardens on the East Pacific Rise, the Snake Pit on the Mid Atlantic Ridge and the Rose Garden in the Galapagos Rift Zone. How these species developed and spread from system to system is a matter of interest and one theory suggests they may use whale carcasses as stepping stones.

There are also many theories about how life may have originated around these vents and in fact these areas may even have been where photosynthesis first developed as there is a faint haze around these vents.  There are animals here with extreme UV sensitivity such as huge shrimp with massive numbers of photoreceptors in their eyes.The vent systems are highly dynamic and unstable environments but they do support uniquely adapted communities of marine life which are an important part of the discussion the deep sea environment In addition to this perhaps we should also consider another unique deep sea environment namely Hydrocarbon seeps. These fall within our study as some of these steeps are more than 2000 meters down.

Marine hydrocarbon seeps are cold (as distinguished from hydrothermal vent activity ) and have two major sources, biogenic (bacterial production of gases) and petrogenic i.e. relates to subsurface petroleum reservoirs that leak to the surface. Some seep gasses arise from CH4 hydrate dissociation, a water ice that is stable at great depths and low temperatures.  Hydrocarbon seepage produces asphalt volcanism, brine pools, gas hydrates and authigenic carbonates. Hydrocarbon seepages are a feature in the Gulf of Mexico and we know from research done at the Chapopote site what minerals are involved. According to one study by the University of Texas communities of chemosynthetic fauna that depend on seeping oil and gas have been found at over 45 sites in the Gulf of Mexico so far down to the 2200 meters below sea level.

The dominant fauna consist of species within four groups: tube worms, seep mussels, epibenthic clams, and infaunal clams. The development of these communities is closely linked to the geological and geochemical processes of seepage. Temperatures varied between 5 and 9 degrees Celsius. The full consequences and importance of both hydrothermal vents and hydrocarbon seepages has perhaps not yet been sufficiently realized or fully researched but these are fascinating and vital parts of the deep sea environment. Conclusion We have briefly discussed the geology, sedimentation, water mass and life forms and their adaptations in the deep sea environment. Until relatively recently the relevance of this environment to man was little studied and perhaps not regarded as particularly relevant for the future of man on Earth. In this summary we should touch upon seven key areas we have selected that link the deep sea environment with man’s future.

The first topic regards biodiversity. Of the estimated 500,000 to 10 million species living in the deep sea, the majority are yet to be discovered. There could be no clearer illustration of the value of the world’s deep sea environments. Approximately 98% of the world’s species live in or just above the floor of the sea. ( This includes some areas strictly outside our remit ). Many of these species are related to seamounts for example. However, the unique environments harbor a breathtaking array of species with high rates of endemism. Each unsampled trench, vent and seep is a potential source of numerous undiscovered species. In addition two thirds of all known coral species live in waters that are deep, dark and cold, down to over 3000 meters deep, which belongs to our area under discussion. Some of these cold water corals are 5-8,000 years old or more and over 35 meters high. These and other habitat forming organisms provide protection from currents and predators, nurseries for young fish, and feeding, breeding and spawning areas for hundreds of thousands of species and therefore are a critical feature of the Earths biodiversity.

Secondly we should consider the feeding of the world’s ever expanding population. Commercially important deep water fish and crustacean populations found in the high seas include crabs, shrimp, cod, Pacific cod, orange roughy, armorhead, grenadier, Patagonian toothfish (also known as Chilean sea bass) , jacks, snappers, porgies, sharks, groupers, rockfish, Atka mackerel and sablefish.

Thirdly, we have the medical uses and implications of the deep sea environment. For example Gorgonian corals produce antibiotics. Compounds found in certain deep sea sponges are powerful immunouppressive and anti-cancer agents. In addition some corals contain the pain killing compounds known as pseudopterosians. Seafans contain high concentrations of posaglandins used to treat asthma and heart disease.

Our fourth point concerns energy and mineral resources. The deep sea environment harbors unexplored deposits of oil, gas, and many minerals. Seismic surveys have so far only detected a fraction of available reserves. A resource hungry world will need to exploit these reserves at some point in its future and the more we know about the deep sea environment the better we can use these reserves and hopefully lessen the impact.

Fifthly, we need to consider the relationship of the deep sea environment to our immediate environment. At first it appears there is little direct connection between the abyssal depths and our own world. However, according to one study at the University of Indiana deep sea hydrothermal vents may play an important part in regulating the temperature and chemical balance of the oceans. Before the discovery of hydrothermal vents scientists believed that the chemical balance of the oceans was determined primarily by run off from the continents. Now hydrothermal vent ( and hydrocarbon seep) influence is seen as important . In fact the university describes the hydrothermal circulation systems with wide ranging effects. Effects of pollution and  deep sea circulation systems are vital to an understanding of the Earth’s environment.

Sixthly, we  need to consider the purely scientific importance of the deep sea environments. It is a treasure house of untapped discovery and resource. For example ancient deep sea corals provide valuable records of climate conditions that may assist our understanding of global climate change. Studies of this environment are making contributions to almost every branch of science from climatology to the search for the origins of life itself and in fact the deep sea is often seen as an extreme environment comparable to conditions prevailing on other planets. Finally we will always be aware of the commercial attractions of the deep. These commercial considerations range from the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves, mineral reserves, deep sea fishing to  the deep sea communities, particularly of corals and sponges which are untapped sources of natural products with enormous potential as pharmaceuticals (mentioned above) enzymes, pesticides and cosmetics. By harvesting the deep sea environment responsibly we can contribute to a more balanced and prosperous world but by overexploiting we can cause global chaos. For all these reasons an understanding of the deep sea environment is pivotal to mankind’s future.

Dr Simon Harding

www.biblon.com

Sources Deep Sea Conservation Coalition

Indiana University studies on hydrothermal circulation Texas University studies on hydrocarbon seeps

Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute

New Scientist

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Nail care is one of the various product categories that you can find on the company’s website. The Dead Sea products vary in price and you can find accessories as well as nail kits in your price range. Here are the nail kits sold by the company- Nail Kit Coral, Nail Kit Deep Blue, Nail Kit Horizon, Nail Kit Wave, Platinum Nail Kit Coral, Platinum Nail Kit Deep Blue, Platinum Nail Kit Horizon and the Platinum Nail Kit Wave. There are also nail accessories that you can purchase such as the Nourishing Cuticle Oil, Professional Nail Buffer and Professional Nail File.

If you want to have softer and supple cuticles, you can purchase the cuticle oil. The nail buffer is a strip that you can use to remove the ridges, residue and stains. This can stimulate nail growth and can result in a shiny glossy look. The nail file is ideal for cleaning the areas that can’t be reached easily. The nail file is ultra slim so you can use it on dry or wet skin. After using the nail file, you can clean it under running water.

The nail kits can allow you to save money because you can clean your nails at home. You don’t have to go to the salon just to have your nails cleaned. For less than $45, you can already have your own nail kit. The platinum kits cost less than $55 if you purchase online.

Why should you stick with the nail care products by Deep Sea Cosmetics? Well, the reason is quite obvious. The nail kits and accessories are really affordable and come from the rich mineral salts of the Dead Sea. The mineral salts are well known for their therapeutic and aesthetic benefits. Since the products are manufactured using the best of technological advancements combined with aroma oils, and other ingredients, you can be sure that you’re getting quality products.

Purchase the nail care products online and you can take advantage of great discounts. The best products are only sold at Deep Sea Cosmetics. Visit them and find the best deals. Always go for genuine products.

Save time by using these nail care kits and accessories. Follow the instructions and you can end up with beautiful and healthy nails. Proper nail care is very important because dirty nails can be very disgusting. Whether you’re a man or a woman, you will need these kits and accessories. Since they are quite affordable, you won’t spend a great sum. If you want, you can start by buying one item at a time. Maintain the cleanliness of your nails at a great price!

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You can find many Dead Sea products today and they all come in different brands and Dead Sea Cosmetics is just one of them. The Dead Sea is a very rich source of raw materials (e.g. natural salts) which makes for a great salt scrub. Through tested and highly proven methods, the Body Salt Scrub was produced. The natural salts were mixed with lavish aromatic oils to create the relaxing coco lime scent. This is a great addition to your anti-aging regimen because the salt scrub works by opening the pores of the body due to the abrasive action. When the pores are opened, the skin will be able to breathe.

You can see significant results even at first application. Through the vigorous scrubs, the skin will look lighter, feels softer, and cleaner. The salt scrub is only 15.8 ounces and, when it is shipped, the shipping weight increases to two pounds.

Another body scrub offered by the company is the Sensual Body Salt Scrub. After using the highly effective salt scrubs contained in the product, your skin will exfoliate and will lead to a polished skin tone. You will surely feel refreshed and clean after every use. The dead skin cells on your body will be removed and this is due to the salt grain’s texture. The product contains minerals like potassium, magnesium, bromine, sodium, and calcium chloride. This is a great product that offers two functions – cleansing the skin and providing it with essential minerals for a more beautiful and softer skin!

Don’t be satisfied with cleaners or soaps. These products are not enough to clean and enhance your body’s natural beauty. You can enjoy younger skin without the dull dead skin cells. Since the pores can breathe with ease, the body can also flush out toxins effectively and leads to better blood circulation. The product’s benefits don’t end there and with continued use, skin regeneration is possible. You will notice the skin tissues getting firm and strong with each use which leads to younger and smoother skin. If you don’t like the coco lime scent, you will love this Sensual Body Salt Scrub because it has a milk and honey scent.

What are you waiting for? If you want to have a lighter, firmer, and smoother skin, you will need to get these body scrub products. You will not spend a fortune on these products and since you can purchase them online, there is no more need to look for the products at local stores. Use the internet to find the body salt scrubs that meet your needs. Use the salt scrubs as directed and you will surely see results in no time. Are you still in doubt? Read what the product reviews have to say and you will be convinced to buy one today.

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There is a high mineral salt content in the Dead Sea and, because of this, the company developed ways to blend the raw materials (mineral salts, aroma oils, plant extracts, rejuvenating minerals, etc) together without harming the end user. Extensive studies were conducted to ensure that the products can give the best results as quickly as possible. The product lines of Deep Sea Cosmetics act as elixirs to fight aging.

Aside from achieving lighter and firmer skin, the products can also address other problems like itching, eczema, rashes, irritations, and many others. Say goodbye to harmful preservatives and chemicals. All the products of the company come from the Dead Sea. Even ancient people were able to recognize the therapeutic benefits of the mineral salts and so they were truly able to maintain their beauty.

The company came up with a unique process to perfect the elements and offer purification as well. Quality can never be sacrificed and so the Deep Sea Laboratories ensure that the original extracts of the mineral salts are preserved. Formulas to create the body care and facial care products were established to ensure a healthy, beautiful, and softly radiant look.

When it comes to safety, the company upholds its standards. With a reputable name like Deep Sea Cosmetics, customers can purchase with confidence. All the product lines of the company were able to pass the FDA regulations, including the European Union. Strict policies, safety requirements and other directives are followed to ensure all products are safe. The company has a team of physicians, pharmacists, clinicians and toxicologists to test and review all the products before being released to the market. These professionals are also in charge of devising the product formulas.

If you order from the website of the company, the items will be shipped in the US only. Products can be delivered from Monday to Friday, especially if the items are going to be shipped to PO boxes or APO/FPO. For those who live in Hawaii, Alaska, and US territories, you will need to pay a higher price for premium shipping.

You will be sent a confirmation email that will help you in tracking the orders you’ve placed. All you have to do is provide the tracking number and you can then locate the purchase. It is also possible to modify your order but you will need to contact customer service quickly.

Buying the products is really easy especially if you stick with the Dead Sea products by Deep Sea Cosmetics.

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What are the Dead Sea products that you can expect from this company? Taking care of your face is very important since it is usually the first thing that other people see. The face care products include a purifying mud mask, facial peeling gel, eye gel, anti wrinkles cream, facial serum, moist (ideal for normal to dry and normal to oily), cleansing gel and a thermal facial care mask.

Aside from the face, you also need to take good care of your body and you can use the body salt scrub, body butter, bath salt, soap and body treatment. The products are not hard to use as long as you read the labels. Follow all the instructions carefully to make sure that you enjoy the best results. If you don’t do as the instructions say, you will end up frustrated. After you’ve cleansed your body, you can then purchase the nail kit and nail accessories to keep your nails in their best shape.

When taking a bath, you spend a lot of time caring for your body and you often overlook your hair. Most women give a lot of attention to their hair since it’s their crowning glory. You’re quite lucky if you have long, straight and beautiful hair. To maintain it, you can purchase the mud shampoo and the mud conditioner.

Some say that beauty products are exclusively for women but, with Deep Sea Cosmetics, it’s different. The company also cares for men and so they are offering a men’s line of products like the after shave balm and the high intensity cream. You can use the balm after you’ve finished shaving for a fresher and cleaner look. Use the creams as directed to affect the best results.

These products can be easily obtained from online stores and you can always visit the official website of the store. Most of the products are reasonably priced and you don’t have to purchase them all. Just pick the ones that you will use based on your needs. When shopping for the right products identify your needs first and shop around. You can get more details about the products through product reviews online. Invest time and effort in reading the product reviews as well as the ratings. This is the best way to determine if other people are satisfied with the products that you’re also interested in buying.

Thanks to the internet, it’s really easy to find the most ideal products that will make you more beautiful and attractive. There are many online stores offering product reviews although you can find unbiased ones from independent websites. Read the reviews now and choose the right product for you.

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Mineral Facial Cleansing Gel – For all skin types- with Dead Sea Minerals, Aloe Vera & Vitamin C.

Enjoy a deep cleansing effect with our gentle, yet effective cleanser which dissolves make-up and removes all

impurities from the skin, leaving it soft and comfortable. This light cleansing gel effortlessly washes away

dirt, impurities and makeup leaving skin thoroughly clean. Natural moisturizers such as Lavender Oil and Evening

Primrose Oil leave skin refreshed and hydrated. Your skin will tingle as this soap-less cleanser nourishes your

face with Dead Sea Minerals and Vitamins C and A. Restores your skin’s pH balance to its optimal state.

Directions: Apply to damp face and gently massage until a light lather is achieved. For best results use twice a

day & follow with Adovia Mineral Facial Toner.

Exfoliating Facial Salts – Dead Sea Products DC

Exfoliating Dead Sea Facial Salts – for Oily Skin – 350grams/12 Ounces

Use our Natural facial salts to improve your complextion, refresh and firm your skin while leaving it cleansed

and toned. Adovia fine grain Facial Salts are uniquely formulated to gently exfoliate your skin while removing

oil and bacteria known to clog pores and cause skin to look dull. These salts will infuse your skin with Dead Sea

minerals while removing dead skin cells, leaving your face radiant, smooth and refreshed. Pores are tightened and

circulation is increased, leaving a firmer, suppler complexion. Great for oily and acne prone skin.

* Offers effective relief of Eczema, acne, psoriasis,

* Stimulates circulation

* Detoxifies

* Exfoliates

* De-stresses

* Revitalizes

Directions: Apply salt to a clean wet face and massage gently. Rinse off with warm water. Follow with Adovia

Moisturizing Cream or Nourishing Night Cream.

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Deep Cleansing Mineral Body Wash

* Deep Cleansing Effect
* Revives Skin
* Restores Softness
* Refreshing Natural Scent
* Revitalizing and Rejuvenating
* For Bath and Shower
* Amazing Rich Lather
Face and Body Acne Soap – Dead Sea Products DC
All Natural Acne Soap

If you are suffering from acne, you need a soap that is not too harsh so that it doesn’t irritate your skin, but also one that will dry and remove acne blemishes. Our Acne treatment soap was developed especially to treat acne by using natural minerals carefully extracted from Dead Sea water and mud. The glycerin present in this soap acts to dry your acne blemishes, while at the same time your skin is deeply nourished with Dead Sea minerals and finally soothed with gentle Aloe Vera. This acne soap also effectively removes dirt, bacteria and impurities, thereby reducing the chances of further outbreaks. Contains natural oils that moisturize the skin without leaving it oily.

Directions: Apply daily to face and / or body and rinse. Avoid contact with eyes.

Deep Cleansing Mineral Body Wash – Dead Sea Products DC

Deep Cleansing Mineral Body Wash

* Deep Cleansing Effect
* Revives Skin
* Restores Softness
* Refreshing Natural Scent
* Revitalizing and Rejuvenating
* For Bath and Shower
* Amazing Rich Lather
Face and Body Acne Soap – Dead Sea Products DC

All Natural Acne Soap

If you are suffering from acne, you need a soap that is not too harsh so that it doesn’t irritate your skin, but also one that will dry and remove acne blemishes. Our Acne treatment soap was developed especially to treat acne by using natural minerals carefully extracted from Dead Sea water and mud. The glycerin present in this soap acts to dry your acne blemishes, while at the same time your skin is deeply nourished with Dead Sea minerals and finally soothed with gentle Aloe Vera. This acne soap also effectively removes dirt, bacteria and impurities, thereby reducing the chances of further outbreaks. Contains natural oils that moisturize the skin without leaving it oily.

Directions: Apply daily to face and / or body and rinse. Avoid contact with eyes.

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• This natural Thermal Mask warms the face for a few seconds, working to accelerate the beautification process by decongesting pores, increasing blood circulation and maximizing the absorption of nourishing Dead Sea Minerals.
• Our exclusive Thermal Mask is formulated with the most innovative ingredients such as Collagen, Vitamin C, pro Vitamin B – 5 and pure vitamin E.
• Your skin will respond naturally by amplifying and maintaining its collagen levels to help lift away the look of deep wrinkles, faster than ever before.
• Authorized Reseller of Genuine Product.
• Full Size 50 ml – 1.7 oz

Product Description
Now exclusively by Deep Sea Cosmetics Laboratories, a breakthrough in the anti-aging fight. A triumph over wrinkles and aging marks without toxins, lasers or injections. Our exclusive Thermal Mask is formulated with the most innovative ingredients such as
Collagen, Vitamin C, pro Vitamin B – 5 and pure vitamin E. When skin ages, its collagen
molecules break down, which leads to the formation of wrinkles and fine lines. This
phenomenal anti – aging kit helps lift … More >>

Deep Sea Cosmetics DSC Dead Sea Recreation Warming Thermal Facial Care Mask

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